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A voiceless alveolar fricative is a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least six types with significant perceptual differences: *The voiceless alveolar sibilant has a strong hissing sound, as the ''s'' in English ''sin''. It is one of the most common sounds in the world. *The voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant (an ''ad hoc'' notation), also called apico-dental, has a weaker lisping sound like English ''th'' in ''thin''. It occurs in Spanish dialects in southern Spain (eastern Andalusia). *The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant , also called apico-alveolar or grave, has a weak hushing sound reminiscent of fricatives. It is used in the languages of northern Iberia, like Astur-Leonese, Basque, Castilian Spanish (excluding parts of Andalusia), Catalan, Galician and Northern Portuguese. A similar retracted sibilant form is also used in Dutch, Icelandic, Swedish, Finnish and Greek. Its sound is between and []. *The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative or , using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA, is similar to the ''th'' in English ''thin''. It occurs in Icelandic. *The voiceless alveolar rhotic fricative sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English ''r'' (somewhat like what the English cluster ''hr'' would sound like) and occurs in Edo, a language spoken in Nigeria. *The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English ''l'' (somewhat like what the English cluster ''hl'' would sound like) and is written as ''ll'' in Welsh. The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made with the teeth closed and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound. ==Voiceless alveolar sibilant== The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as ''sea'' and ''pass'', and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with . It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as ''sssst!'' or ''psssst!''. The voiceless alveolar sibilant is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have . However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as , but no . In addition, sibilants are absent from Australian Aboriginal languages, where fricatives are rare; even the few indigenous Australian languages that have developed fricatives do not have sibilants. The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed the voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, and usually with tip of the tongue (apex) against the alveolar ridge. It is a linguistically unusual sibilant sound that is found most notably in a number of languages in a linguistic area covering northern and central Iberia, and is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area. In the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old and Middle High German. There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound. The symbol is often used, with a diacritic indicating an pronunciation. However, this is potentially problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical (see below), and not all apical alveolar sibilants are retracted. The ad-hoc non-IPA symbols and are often used in the linguistic literature, even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds; , however, is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant . Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a "whistling" quality, and to sound similar to palato-alveolar . For this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with . This occurred, for example, in English borrowings from Old French (e.g. ''push'' from ''pousser'', ''cash'' from ''caisse''); in Polish borrowings from medieval German (e.g. ''kosztować'' from ''kosten'', ''żur'' from ''sūr'' (contemporary ''sauer''); and in representations of Mozarabic (an extinct medieval Romance language once spoken in southern Spain) in Arabic characters. The similarity between retracted and has resulted in many exchanges in Spanish between the sounds, during the medieval period when Spanish had both phonemes. Examples are ''jabón'' (formerly ''xabón'') "soap" from Latin , ''jibia'' "cuttlefish" (formerly ''xibia'') from Latin , and ''tijeras'' "scissors" (earlier ''tixeras'' < medieval ''tiseras'') from Latin (with initial ''t-'' due to influence from "shaver"). One of the clearest descriptions of this sound is from Obaid: "There is a Castilian ''s'', which is a voiceless, concave, apicoalveolar fricative: The tip of the tongue turned upward forms a narrow opening against the alveoli of the upper incisors. It resembles a faint and is found throughout much of the northern half of Spain". Many dialects of Modern Greek have a very similar-sounding sibilant that is pronounced with a articulation. It occurs as the normal voiceless alveolar sibilant in Astur-Leonese, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, working-class Glaswegian English, northern European Portuguese, and some Occitan dialects. It also occurs in Basque and Mirandese, where it is opposed to a different voiceless alveolar sibilant, the more common ; the same distinction occurs in a few dialects of northeastern Portuguese. Outside this area, it also occurs in a few dialects of Latin American Spanish (e.g. Antioqueño, in Colombia), and in many dialects of Modern Greek (with a articulation). In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including the Romance languages spoken in most or all of France and Iberia (Old Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, French, etc.), as well as in the Old and Middle High German of central and southern Germany. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like English , and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred. In general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written or , while the non-retracted variants were written , or . In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin , or , while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlier affricates and , which in turn derived from palatalized or . The situation was similar in High German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic , while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic that were shifted by the High German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, were ''wizzen'' "to know" (Old English ''witan'', cf. "to wit") vs. ''wissen'' "known" (Old English ''wissen''), and ''weiz'' "white" (Old English ''wīt'') vs. ''weis'' "way" (Old English ''wīs'', cf. "-wise"). This distinction has since vanished from most of these languages: * In most dialects of Spanish, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into the non-retracted . * In French and most dialects of Portuguese, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into non-retracted and , while in European Portuguese, most other Old World Portuguese variants and some recently European-influenced dialects of Brazil all coda , voiced before voiced consonants, was backed to , , while in most of Brazilian Portuguese this phenomenon is much rarer, being essentially absent in the dialects that conservated the most archaic Portuguese forms and/or had a greater Indigenous and/or non-Portuguese European influence. * In the remaining dialects of Portuguese, found in northern Portugal, they merged into the retracted , or, as in Mirandese (which is, however, not a Portuguese dialect, but belongs to Asturian-Leonese), conservated the mediaeval distinction. * In central and northern Spanish, the non-retracted was fronted to after merging with non-retracted , while the retracted remains. * In German, most instances of were fronted to , but some were backed to become (initially before a consonant, and following ; in many modern High German dialects, also non-initially before a consonant), postalveolar as in European and ''fluminense'' Portuguese. Because of the widespread medieval distribution, it has been speculated that retracted was the normal pronunciation in spoken Latin. However, it equally well could have been an areal feature inherited from the prehistoric languages of Western Europe, as evidenced by its occurrence in modern Basque. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「voiceless alveolar fricative」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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